Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and Conduct disorder (CD) are two of the most common psychiatric disorders affecting children and adolescents. Rates of ODD range from 2 to 16% depending on the nature of the population sample and methods of ascertainment. Rates of CD are in the same range. This translates into many millions of cases. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV) characteristics of ODD include short temper, constant arguing with adults, defying rules, deliberately annoying others, blaming others for their own mistakes, being angry and resentful, spiteful and vindictive. In its severe form such children can be highly destructive to family life. Despite these characteristics no pharmaceutical companies market any medications specifically for ODD, and the majority of child psychiatrists feel it is largely a psychological disorder and make no effort to treat it medically.
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV) characteristics of CD are a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the basic rights of others or major age-appropriate norms or rules are violated, as manifested by the presence of three or more of a range of criteria for 12 months. These include aggression to people and animals (bullying, threatening, starting fights, using a weapon to cause harm, being cruel to animal or people, stealing, forcing others into sexual activity), destruction of property, fire setting, deceitfulness or theft (broken into homes or property, stealing things of value), and serious violation of rules (staying out over night when less than 13 years of age, running away from home, truant from school before age 13).
The instant invention is the finding that ODD and CD can be treated with the drug molindone (Moban) which is a short acting atypical antipsychotic. Molindone is a dihydroindolone neuroleptic which is structurally distinct from other classes of neuroleptics. It exhibits many similarities to other neuroleptics, including dopamine receptor blockade, antipsychotic efficacy, and extrapyramidal side effects, yet molindone has atypical properties such as inhibiting the enzyme monoamine oxidase. Molindone is generally used for the treatment of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. Studies have been published in which molindone was tested for treatment of schizophrenia, anxiety and depression, and conduct disorder.
The publications and other materials used herein to illuminate the background of the invention or provide additional details respecting the practice, are incorporated by reference, and for convenience are respectively grouped in the appended List of References.
Molindone, a neuroleptic drug generally used to treat schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders, has been tested on children diagnosed with oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder and has been found to be an effective, treatment. Use of a preferred dose of 1.25 to 10 mg every 4 hours eliminates the symptoms of ODD or CD with minimal or no side effects.
Oppositional Defiant Disorder
Oppositional Defiant Disorder is one of the most common psychiatric disorders affecting children and adolescents. Rates of ODD range from 2 to 16% depending on the nature of the populations sample and methods of ascertainment. The place of ODD in the classification system was controversial when first introduced by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third Edition, revised (DSM-III-R) (American Psychiatric Association 1987). According to Rey (1993), some authors questioned whether oppositional defiant disorder was sufficiently distinct from normal oppositional behavior to warrant its inclusion as a distinct diagnostic category (Rutter and Shaffer, 1980) while other authors argued that the criteria for ODD implied a milder form of conduct disorder (Werry et al., 1983; Werry et al., 1987). Despite this early controversy, ODD has become one of the diagnoses more commonly made in clinical setting and community samples (Rey, 1993).
Probably as a result of the original controversy concerning whether ODD was a distinct 15 diagnostic category, the concept of ODD underwent considerable changes. DSM-III introduced oppositional disorder in the category Disorders Usually First Evident in Infancy, Childhood or Adolescence to describe children who show a persistently disobedient, negativistic, and provocative opposition to authority figures, manifested by at least two of the following symptoms: 1) violations of minor rules, 2) temper tantrums, 3) argumentativeness, 4) provocative behavior, and 5) stubbornness. This diagnosis was placed under the heading Other Disorders of Infancy, Childhood and Adolescence, together with diagnoses such as schizoid disorder, elective mutism, and identity disorder (Rey, 1993). The International Classification of Diseases 9 (ICD-9 (World Health Organization)) did not contain a comparable diagnosis. Seven years later, DSM-I11-R changed the name to oppositional defiant disorder and placed it, together with conduct disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, under the heading Disruptive Behavior Disorders (Rey, 1993). The number of diagnostic criteria was increased to nine by the addition of 1) blames others for his or her own mistakes, 2) is touchy or easily annoyed, 3) is angry and resentful, 4) is spiteful or vindictive, and 5) swears, and by the removal of stubbornness; the remaining four criteria were reworded (e.g., temper tantrums became xe2x80x9coften loses temperxe2x80x9d) (Rey, 1993). Also, the number of criteria required for the diagnosis was increased to five. These modifications were designed to counter the criticism that ODD could not be distinguished from the behavior of many normal children and the changes were well received (Rey, 1993; Rutter, 1988). In both DSM-I11 and DSM-I11-R, a diagnosis of oppositional defiant disorder can be made only in the absence of conduct disorder (Rey, 1993).
The 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) 5 came into use in 1994 (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). It defines the essential feature of ODD as a recurrent pattern of negativistic, defiant, disobedient, and hostile behavior toward authority figures that persists for at least 6 months (Criterion A) and is characterized by the frequent occurrence of at least four of the following behaviors: losing temper (Criterion Al), arguing with adults (Criterion A2), actively defying or refusing to comply with the requests or rules of adults (Criterion A3), deliberately doing things that will annoy other people (Criterion A4), blaming others for his or her own mistakes or misbehavior (Criterion AS), being touchy or easily annoyed by others (Criterion A6), being angry and resentful (Criterion A7), or being spiteful or vindictive (Criterion A8). To qualify for ODD, the behaviors must occur more frequently than is typically observed in individuals of comparable age and developmental level and must lead to significant impairment in social, academic, or occupational functioning (Criterion B). The diagnosis is not made if the disturbance in behavior occurs exclusively during the course of a Psychotic or Mood Disorder (Criterion C) or if criteria are met for Conduct Disorder or Antisocial Personality Disorder (in an individual over age 18 years) (DSM-IV, American Psychiatric Association, 1994) Although ODD includes some of the features observed in Conduct Disorder (e.g., disobedience and opposition to authority figures), it does not include the persistent pattern of the more serious forms of behavior in which either the basic rights of others or age-appropriate societal norms or rules are violated (DSM-IV, American Psychiatric Association, 1994). When the individual""s pattern of behavior meets the criteria for both Conduct Disorder and ODD, the diagnosis of Conduct Disorder takes precedence and ODD is not diagnosed (DSM-W, American Psychiatric Association, 1994). ICD-10 (World Health Organization, 1992) also includes a category of oppositional defiant disorder, defined by the presence of markedly defiant, disobedient, provocative behavior in the absence of severe dissocial or aggressive acts that violate the law or the rights of others. ICD-b conceptualizes oppositional defiant disorder as part of the dimension of conduct disorder (Rey, 1993). For the diagnosis of ODD, ICD-b requires that the child meet two of three criteria (frequent and marked lying, excessive fighting, and defiance of adult requests and commands) and not meet any of the other 12 criteria for conduct disorder (World Health Organization, 1990). Rey (1993) outlines the developmental patterns of both ODD and conduct disorder with the following being taken from the Rey (1993) publication. There is a substantial body of research showing that symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder typically appear during the preschool years, when they are considered normal (Rey, 1993). Temper tantrums reach their peak when children are 2-3 years of age (Goodenough, 1931; Shepherd et at., 1971). During the preschool years negativistic and oppositional behavior is common, resulting in angry outbursts and ensuing conflicts with parental authority about matters that vary with age, such as toilet training or possessions at age 2 and tidiness at age 5 (Rey, 1993). Destructiveness, bullying, and fighting decrease after the preschool years (Rutter and Oiler, 1983). Early adolescence is often associated with an increase in rebellious behavior (Looney and Oldham, 1989). Teachers"" reports indicate that most oppositional symptoms, such as arguing, screaming, disobedience, and defiance, peak between the ages of 8 and 11 years and then decline in frequency (Achenbach and Edelbrock, 1986). According to parents, swearing and argumentativeness become more prevalent during adolescence, particularly among girls (Achenbach, 1991). By contrast, most symptoms of conduct disorder (truancy, stealing, drug and alcohol use, etc.), with the exception of lying, do not occur during the preschool years but become increasingly frequent during late childhood and adolescence (Rutter and Giller, 1983; Looney and Oldham, 1989; Achenbach and Edelbrock, 1986; Achenbach, 1991; Loeber et at., 1991). Boys are significantly more aggressive than girls, but sex differences change with age: they are large in 4- to 5-year-olds, moderate in 9- to 12-year-olds, and small in college students (Cohn, 1991). Thus, developmental patterns of behavior in oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder appear to follow a different course (Lahey et at., 1992). This indicates that ODD and conduct disorder are in fact distinct from each other.
Several clinicians and researchers have expressed the belief that ODD is a mild form of conduct disorder (Rutter and Shaffer, 1980; Werry et at., 1987), but this issue has been reviewed (Loeber et al., 1991; Quay, 1986) with the authors of the reviews concluding that there is considerable agreement across factor analytical studies in the finding that symptoms of disruptive behavior consistently aggregate in two groupings: one consists of all oppositional defiant disorder behavior plus some symptoms of mild physical aggression, such as fighting and bullying, while the other consists of covert, nonaggressive conduct disorder behavior, such as stealing, truancy, and running away (Rey, 1993). This aggregation into two groupings further enforces the idea that ODD and conduct disorder are distinct from each other. Loeber et al. (1991) stated that the possible distinction between ODD and conduct 5 disorder (CD) can be conceptualized in at least three ways: (a) the diagnostic categories may be entirely distinct entities; (b) they may be more or less severe expressions of the same etiology, wherein some youths progress over time from the less severe symptoms (ODD) to the more severe symptoms (CD); or (c) ODD and CD may be largely distinct disorders with partially related etiologies. The authors addressed these alternative conceptualizations by reviewing evidence on patters of behavioral covariation, age of onset, the developmental course, correlates and risk factors, stability and predictability, seriousness ratings, and treatment implications (Loeber et al., 1991). The conclusions which were reached include the following: 1) in terms of behavioral covariation, much of the literature suggests that most symptoms of CD and ODD are distinct; 2) the mean age of onset for ODD symptoms is earlier than that for CD symptoms; 3) the familial correlates of ODD and CD are very similar in terms of history of antisocial behavior and family adversity, but youths with CD tend to show a larger number of these correlates than youths with ODD; 4) developmentally, ODD symptoms predict CD symptoms, in analogy with CD""s predicting antisocial personality; with the authors stating that in general, the various vantage points reviewed suggest that ODD and CD are different disorders although developmentally related (Loeber et al., 1991).
Rey (1993) discusses several more aspects of ODD including diagnosis, epidemiology, comorbidity, validity, etiology and treatment. The reliability of the diagnosis was found to depend upon the diagnostic criteria. A threshold of five criteria fulfilled had the best combination of sensitivity (80%) and specificity (79%), discriminating between patients with and without ODD (Rey, 1993; Spitzer et at., 1990). Studies of ODD in community samples based on the use of specified criteriaxe2x80x94mostly those of DSM-IIIxe2x80x94and standardized interviews show a prevalence of ODD between 1.7% and 9.9%, with a weighted average of 5.7%. Approximately one-third of all of the children with any disorder had a diagnosis of ODD (Rey, 1993; Anderson et al., 1987; Kashani et at., 1987; Cohen et al., 1987; Bird et at., 1988; McGee et al., 1990). Overall, ODD is diagnosed more often in boys than in girls although this depends on the age of the child, studies of children 12 years of age or younger showing a prevalence of ODD in boys double that seen in girls (Anderson et at., 1987; Cohen et al., 1987) while studies of adolescents (Kashani et al., 1987; Cohen et al., 1987; McGee et al., 1990) showed a higher prevalence of ODD in girls. These changes parallel those reported for aggressive behavior (Cohn, 1991). By comparison, conduct disorder was diagnosed more often in boys in all age groups in most studies (Rey, 1993). This difference is yet further confirmation of the distinction between ODD and conduct disorder.
Studies trying to assess the effect of age on ODD are contradictory with one study (Cohen et al., 1987) showing an increase of ODD with increased age while another (McGee et al., 1990) showed a decline. Another study (Pelham et al., 1992) reported a gradual increase in ODD with increasing age in a community sample. By contrast, there is little doubt that conduct disorder becomes more prevalent during adolescence (Rey, 1993). There is a high comorbidity between ODD and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and also a high comorbidity between ODD and conduct disorder (Rey, 1993). Some overlap was seen between ODD and separation anxiety, generalized anxiety disorder and major depressive disorder and there appears to be an association between ODD and communication disorders (Rey, 1993). It is unresolved whether comorbidity between ODD and conduct disorder is higher than between ODD and other disorders. Having one psychiatric disorder increases the probability of having a second disorder (Caron and Rutter, 1991; Robins et al., 1991), therefore a specific association between oppositional defiant disorder and another disorder can be assumed only if comorbidity is significantly higher than that expected when another diagnosis is present. The diagnosis of ODD remains stable over time. Cantwell and Baker (1989) did a 4-year follow-up study of a group of children who had been diagnosed as suffering from DSM-III disorders and found that ODD, together with autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, was one of the most stable diagnoses. ODD also showed the poorest recovery rate of all the behavioral psychiatric disorders (Rey, 1993). This underscores the need for an effective medication for persons diagnosed with ODD.
The stability of ODD was shown in two more studies. Cohen et at. (1991) showed that a diagnosis of ODD predicted a significant increase in the use of mental health services 2 years later. A follow-up study of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder into adolescence reported that most differences between children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and normal control subjects were attributable to the group with comorbid ODD at follow-up (Barkley et al., 1991). The degree of aggression in childhood predicted symptoms of ODD in adolescence, and these were very stable (Rey, 1993). These findings show that children with ODD do not necessarily develop conduct disorder when they grow older (Rey, 1993; Lahey et al., 1992; Cantwell and Baker, 1989). As of 1993, Rey (1993) reports that no study was identified that used medication for 5 children with ODD. Rey (1993) states that it is widely accepted that response to treatment of patients with conduct disorder is very poor, citing Kazdin (1987), and that if it were shown that children with ODD respond to specific treatments more consistently than those with conduct disorder then there would be even greater support that ODD and conduct disorder are different from each other. Loeber (1991) published an article contrasting ODD and conduct disorder. This reference states that symptoms of ODD can resemble normal problem behaviors, but the symptoms of ODD are distinguished from normal behavioral problems if they occur at a rate and intensity that is atypical for the child""s age group or persist through a later age than for most youngsters.
In contrast, symptoms of conduct disorder are usually considered undesirable at any period in a youngster""s life because they tend to result in personal harm or property loss or damage (Loeber, 1991). Symptoms of ODD consist of overt or conirontive problem behaviors, while most conduct disorder symptoms, such as theft and truancy, are of a covert, concealing nature (Loeber, 1991). Furthermore, the developmental course of ODD generally differs from that of conduct 20 disorder. Symptoms of ODD usually appear before the onset of the majority of conduct disorder symptoms whereas serious overt conduct disorder symptoms, such as rape and mugging, tend to emerge during late adolescence and early adulthood (Loeber, 1991). According to Loeber (1991), early onset of serious theft or substance use predicts a high persistence, variety, and seriousness of conduct problems later, but early onset does not appear to indicate persistence of ODD symptoms. Also, the prevalence of symptoms of the two disorders changes over time in an orderly fashion, with the prevalence of ODD in samples not referred for treatment decreasing with age whereas by contrast the prevalence of several conduct disorder symptoms increases from middle childhood onward and accelerates in adolescence (Loeber, 1991).
A study was performed recently to determine whether ODD is a precursor to conduct 30 disorder (Biederman et al., 1996). To perform the study, assessments from multiple domains were used to examine 140 children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and 120 normal controls at baseline and 4 years later. It was seen that of all children who had ADHD at baseline, 65% had comorbid ODD and 22% had CD. Among those with ODD, 32% had comorbid CD. All but one child with CD also had ODD that preceded the onset of CD by several years. ODD plus CD children had more severe symptoms of ODD, more comorbid psychiatric disorders, lower Global Assessment of Functioning Scale scores, more bipolar disorder, and more abnormal Child Behavior Checklist clinical scale scores compared with ADHD children with non-CD ODD and those without ODD or CD. In addition, ODD without CD at baseline assessment in childhood did not increase the risk for CD at the 4-year follow-up, by midadolescence. The authors conclude that two subtypes of ODD associated with ADHD were identified: one that is prodromal to CD and another that is subsyndromal to CD but not likely to progress into CD in later years (Biederman et at., 1996).
Molindone
Molindone (3-ethyl-6,7-dihydro-2-methyl-5-(morpholinomethyl)indol-4-(5H)-one) is a dihydroindolone neuroleptic which is structurally distinct from the other 15 classes of neuroleptics, and having the following structure: 
The compound can be prepared in its racemic form or as the levorotatory enantiomer. Molindone can be prepared according to the procedures described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,491,093 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,065,453. Analogues of molindone which are dihydroindolones may also be administered according to the present invention for the treatment of oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder. Such analogues, especially those with longer-lasting effects than molindone, will be especially useful in treating persons with ODD.
Owen and Cole (1989) reviewed the laboratory and clinical findings of studies of molindone and found the following: 1) it exhibits many similarities to other neuroleptics, including dopamine receptor blockade, antipsychotic efficacy and extrapyramidal side effects; 2) it has atypical properties and inhibits the enzyme monoamine oxidase in vitro and in vivo; 3) it causes less dopainine receptor supersensitivity than other neuroleptics and thus may be less likely to cause tardive dyskinesia; 4) it appears to have a greater effect on mesolimbic and mesocortical dopamine neurons than on those in the nigrostriatal dopamine system; and 5) clinically it has a tendency to cause weight loss and may have less effect on seizure threshold than conventional antipsychotic agents.
The pharmacology of molindone in humans has been studied and reported in several 25 articles and summarized in Owen and Cole (1989) as set out in the following. Absorption of molindone is rapid after both oral and intramuscular administration, with maximal serum concentration occurring at approximately 1.1 and 0.6 hours, respectively (Owen and Cole, 1989; Zetin et at., 1985; Fann and Moreira, 1985). Molindone is less lipophilic than other neuroleptic agents and approximately 24% of molindone in plasma is not bound to protein, compared with 9% for haloperidol and 0.13% for chlorpromazine (Owen and Cole, 1989; Freedberg et al.,1979). Accordingly, the elimination half-life of molindone is approximately 2 hours, which is much shorter than the half-lives of traditional antipsychotic agents (Zetin et al., 1985; Wolf et al., 1985; Claghom, 1985). Even at steady state doses of 50 mg twice per day or 100-150 mg in a single daily dose, molindone concentrations are negligible at 12 hours after the last dose (Wolf et at., 1985; Zetin et al., 1985). Concomitant lithium therapy prolongs the half-life of molindone 5 at least fourfold (Wolf and Mosnaim, 1986).
Despite its short plasma half-life, the clinical duration of action of a therapeutic dose of molindone is at least 24 hours (Ayd, 1974). This has been attributed to the activity of molindone being mediated by an active metabolite (Koe, 1979; Meller and Friedman, 1982; Balsara et al., 1984; Wolf et al., 1985; Greengard, 1975). Molindone has been used to treat several illnesses. Owen and Cole (1989) summarize these studies. They state that more than 20 studies of the antipsychotic efficacy of molindone were performed in schizophrenic patients, with most studies showing minimal to moderate improvement in a majority of patients. In these studies, 2 mg of molindone appeared to be equivalent to 1 mg of trifluoperazine with respect to both antipsychotic efficacy and side effects (Owen and Cole, 1989). Intramuscular molindone has been shown to be as effective as intramuscular halopendol in the treatment of acutely psychotic or agitated patients (Owen and Cole, 1989; Binder etal., 1981; Smythies etal., 1982; Escobar et al., 1985). Owen and Cole (1989) also summarize studies testing the use of molindone to treat anxiety and depression. They cite two pilot studies which suggested that molindone may have some antianxiety effects although the differences between molindone and placebo did not reach statistical significance (Case et at., 1970; Keliner et al., 1972). Molin4one at a dosage of as little as 3 mg/day showed antianxiety effects in patients suffering from premenstrual tension (Shader and Harmatz, 1975). Two studies are cited by Owen and Cole (1989) relating to the use of molindone as an antidepressant. In a placebo-controlled trial using low-dose molindone (mean dose 14.5 mg/day), the patient showed some improvement in both anxiety and depression ratings, although the changes were not statistically significant (Goldstein and Brauzer, 1971). Molindone (10-30 mg/day) was compared with tranylcypromine in a single-blind parallel study of 19 patients with refractory depression and in which the patients had not responded to or had not tolerated tricyclic antidepressant agents (Small et al., 1981). Five of the 10 patients treated with molindone were described as showing definite improvement whereas only two of the tranylcypromine-treated patients were described as being definitely better (Small et al., 1981).
Studies have been performed with molindone being used to treat children and geriatric patients. Owen and Cole (1989) cite 3 studies involving children. These are a small pilot study showing molindone to be effective in treating schizophrenic children, ages 3-5 years (Campbell et al., 1971), an open trial with six patients (ages 6-11 years) diagnosed as having undersocialized conduct disorder, aggressive type, who showed some improvement in aggressive behavior and in the Nurses"" Global Assessment Scale (Greenhill Ct al., 1981), and a double-blind study comparing molindone with thioridazine in 31 children (ages 6-11 years) with undersocialized conduct disorder, aggressive type, this study reporting improvement in behavior ratings with both drugs and no significant differences in effectiveness between the drugs (Greenhill et al., 1985).
Molindone was shown to be both effective and well-tolerated in a sample of geriatric patients with a variety of psychiatric disorders, including dementia (Peper, 1985) with an average daily dose in the last week of the study of 100 mg, which is comparable to doses used in young adults (Owen and Cole, 1989).
Owen and Cole (1989) report just six published cases of tardive dyskinesia associated 15 with molindone treatment (Camp, 1977; Ananth and Carrillo, 1983; Cole et al., 1987). In these cases, although the movement disorder emerged during treatment with molindone in these cases, each patient had received at least one other antipsychotic agent at some time prior to receiving molindone (Owen and Cole, 1989). Thus, no case of tardive dyskinesia had been reported (as of 1989) in which molindone was the only possible causative agent (Owen and Cole, 1989). Molindone is associated with side effects similar to other antipsychotic agents. Owen and Cole (1989) report that extrapyramidal side effects have been reported in every study and include rigidity, tremor, and akathisia. Drowsiness was reported as a common side effect (Sugerman and Herrmann, 1967; Krumholz et al., 1970; Ab1177ahab, 1973), while dry mouth (Sugerman and Herrmann, 1967; Abuzzahab, 1973), blurred vision (Shelton et al., 1968; Abuzzahab, 1973), and 25 orthostatic hypotension (Shelton et al., 1968; Turek et al., 1970) appeared to be much less frequent. One side effect unique to molindone appears to be significant weight loss (Krumholz et al., 1970; Gallant et al., 1973; Freeman and Frederick, 1969; Clark et al., 1970; Escobar et al., 1985; Gardos and Cole, 1977), although one study found no difference between molindone and other neuroleptics and suggested that higher doses of molindone may cause weight gain (Parentet al., 1986).
Formulations Comprising the Active Ingredient
The compound of the present invention can be formulated into compositions comprising the compound together with a pharmaceutically suitable carrier. The carrier can be either a solid or liquid and the compositions can be in the form of tablets, liquid-filled capsules, dry-filled capsules, aqueous solutions, non-aqueous solutions, injectables, suppositories, syrups, suspensions and the like. The compositions can contain suitable preservatives and coloring and flavoring agents. Some examples of the carriers which can be used in the preparation of the products of this invention are gelatin capsules; sugars, such as lactose and sucrose; starches; dextrans; cellulosics, such as methyl cellulose, cellulose acetate phthalate; gelatin; talc; steric acid salts; vegetable oils, such as peanut oil, cottonseed oil, sesame oil, olive oil, corn oil, and oil of theobroma; liquid petrolateum; polyethylene glycol; glycerin, sorbitol; propylene glycol; ethanol; sodium metabisulfite, disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; agar; water; and isotonic saline.
Owen and role (1989) cite a few studies which reported mild to moderate euphoria in some patients taking molindone although the number of affected patients was small and has examples of the carriers which can be used in the preparation of the products of this invention are gelatin capsules; sugars, such as lactose and sucrose; starches; dextrans; cellulosics, such as methyl cellulose, cellulose acetate phthalate; gelatin; talc; stearic acid salts; vegetable oils, such as peanut oil, cottonseed oil, sesame oil, olive oil, corn oil, and oil of theobroma; liquid petrolateum; polyethylene glycol; glycerin, sorbitol; propylene glycol; ethanol; sodium metabisulfite, disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; agar; water; and isotonic saline.
In formulating the compounds, conventional practices and precautions are used. The composition intended for parenteral administration must be sterile either by using sterile ingredients and carrying out the production under aseptic conditions or by sterilizing the final composition by one of the usual procedures such as autoclaving under appropriate temperature and pressure conditions. Customary care should be exercised so that no incompatible conditions exist between the active components and the diluent preservative or flavoring agent, or in the conditions employed in preparation of the compositions.
Gelatin capsules contain the active ingredient and powdered carriers, such as lactose, 15 sucrose, mannitol, starch, cellulose derivatives, magnesium stearate, stearic acid, and the like. Similar diluents can be used to make compressed tablets. Both tablets and capsules can be manufactured as sustained release products to provide for continuous release of medication over a period of hours. Compressed tablets can be sugar-coated or film-coated to mask any unpleasant taste and protect the tablet from the atmosphere, or enteric-coated for selective disintegration in the gastrointestinal tract. Liquid dosage forms for oral administration can contain coloring and flavoring to increase patient acceptance. In general, water, a suitable oil, saline, aqueous dextrose (glucose), and related sugar solutions and glycols such as propylene glycol or polyethylene glycols are suitable carriers for parenteral solutions. Solutions for parenteral administration contain preferably a water soluble salt of the active ingredient, suitable stabilizing agents, and if necessary, buffer substances. Antioxidizing agents such as sodium bisulfite, sodium sulfite, or ascorbic acid either atone or combined are suitable stabilizing agents. Also used are citric acid and its salts and sodium EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid). In addition, parenteral solutions can contain preservatives, such as benzalkonium chloride, methyl- or propyl-paraben, and chlorobutanol.
Molindone can be prepared and administered in the form of a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, preferably an acid addition salt. It will be understood by the skilled reader that the compound used in the present invention is capable of forming salts, and that the salt forms of pharmaceuticals are commonly used, often because they are more readily crystallized and purified than are the free bases. In all cases, the use of the pharmaceuticals described above as salts is contemplated in the description herein, and often is preferred, and the pharmaceutically acceptable salts of all of the compounds are included in the names of them.
Since the compound used in this invention is an amine, and accordingly reacts with any of a number of inorganic and organic acids to form pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts. Acids commonly employed to form such salts are inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, hydroiodic acid, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, and the like, and organic acids, such as p-toluenesulfonic acid, methanesulfonic acid, oxalic acid, p-bromophenylsulfonic acid, carbonic acid, succinic acid, citric acid, benzoic acid, acetic acid and the like. Examples of such pharmaceutically acceptable salts thus are the sulfate, pyrosulfate, bisulfate, sulfite, bisulfite, phosphate, monohydrogenphosphate, dihydrogenphosphate, metaphosphate, pyrophosphate, chloride, bromide, iodide, acetate, propionate, decanoate, caprylate, acrylate, formate, isobutyrate, caproate, heptanoate, propiolate, oxalate, malonate, succinate, suberate, sebacate, fumarate, maleate, butyne-1,4-dioate, hexyne-1,6-dioate, benzoate, chlorobenzoate, methylbenzoate, dinitrobenzoate, hydroxybenzoate, methoxybenzoate, phthalate, sulfonate, xylenesulfonate, phenylacetate, phenylpropionate, phenylbutyrate, citrate, lactate, b-hydroxybutyrate, glycollate, tartrate, methanesulfonate, propanesulfonate, naphthalene-1-sulfonate, naphthalene-2-sulfonate, mandelate and the like. Preferred pharmaceutically acceptable salts are those formed with hydrochloric acid.
Suppositories contain the active ingredient in a suitable oleaginous or water-soluble base. The oleaginous class includes cocoa butter and fats with similar properties: the water-soluble class includes polyethylene glycols. Suitable pharmaceutical carriers are described in Remington""s Pharmaceutical Sciences, 5 E. W. Martin, a standard reference text in this field.
Molindone or its salt can be administered as treatment by any means that produces contact of the active agent with the agent""s site of action in the body. Molindone can be administered orally, parenterally, percutaneously, intravenously, intramuscularty, intranasally or rectally. It can be administered formulated as a cream or in a patch which slowly delivers the drug in a time-release fashion. Because molindone is a short-acting drug, it is preferred that it be administered in a long-acting form such as in a time-release capsule, a patch or sustained release formulations. Preferably the compositions according to the invention are in unit dosage forms such as tablets, pills, capsules, powders, granules, solutions or suspensions, or suppositories, for oral, parenteral or rectal administration, or administration by inhalation or insufflation.
For preparing solid compositions such as tablets, the principal active ingredient is mixed with a pharmaceutical carrier, e.g. conventional tableting ingredients such as corn starch, lactose, sucrose, sorbitol, talc, stearic acid, magnesium stearate, dicalcium phosphate or gums, and other pharmaceutical diluents, e.g. water, to form a solid preformulation composition containing a homogeneous mixture of a compound of the present invention, or a non-toxic pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. When referring to these preformulation compositions as homogeneous, it is meant that the active ingredient is dispersed evenly throughout the composition so that the composition may be readily subdivided into equally effective unit dosage forms such as tablets, pills and capsules. This solid preformulation composition is then subdivided into unit dosage forms of the type described above containing from 0.1 to about 500 mg of the active ingredient of the present invention. The tablets or pills of the novel composition can be coated or otherwise compounded to provide a dosage form affording the advantage of prolonged action. For example, the tablet or pill can comprise an inner dosage and an outer dosage component, the latter being in the form of an envelope over the former. The two components can be separated by an enteric layer which serves to resist disintegration in the stomach and permits the inner component to pass intact into the duodenum or to be delayed in release. A variety of materials can be used for such enteric layers or coatings, such materials including a number of polymeric acids and mixtures of polymeric acids with such materials as shellac, cetyl alcohol and cellulose acetate.
The liquid forms in which the novel compositions of the present invention may be incorporated for administration orally or by injection include aqueous solutions, suitably flavoured syrups, aqueous or oil suspensions, and flavoured emulsions with edible oils such as cottonseed oil, sesame oil, coconut oil or peanut oil, as well as elixirs and similar pharmaceutical vehicles. Suitable dispersing or suspending agents for aqueous suspensions include synthetic and natural gums such as tragacanth, acacia, alginate, dextran, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose, polyvinyl-pyrrolidone or gelatin.
The dosage administered will vary depending upon known factors such as the pharmacodynamic characteristics of the particular agent, and its mode and route of administration; age, health, and weight of the recipient; nature and extent of symptoms, kind of concurrent treatment, frequency of treatment, and the effect desired.
When administering molindone, it is preferred that a low dosage is first administered and that the dosage is raised until an effect is seen. In this manner, the lowest effective dose can be used which will avoid or minimize any side effects. Although the reverse procedure of beginning a patient at a high dosage and lowering the dosage until side effects disappear or are minimized can also be used, it has been seen that after once experiencing side effects the patients are less likely to take the medication. Therefore the method of beginning a patient at a low dosage and increasing it until an effective dosage is reached is preferable to beginning at a high dosage and then lowering the dosage.
Typically the effective dose in a human patient is 50-150 mg/day, preferably 1.25 to 10 mg every four hours, especially 5-10 mg every four hours.
Use of Molindone to Treat Patients with Oppositional Defiant Disorder and Conduct Disorder
It has now been found that oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder can be effectively treated by the administration of molindone. More than 50 patients with ODD have been successfully treated with molindone with the usual therapeutic dose to be 1.25 to 10 mg every 4 hours. A number of recently marketed atypical antipsychotics such as risperidone (Risperdal) and olanzapine (Zyprexia) are also capable of effectively treating ODD (unpublished observations). However,unlike molindone, these drugs also antagonize serotonin 2 receptors. Their combination of a higher level of antagonism of dopamine receptors than molindone and antagonism of serotonin 2C receptors, makes them act like xe2x80x9canti-phen-fenxe2x80x9d the recently discontinued pair of diet medications. As such these two drugs are associated, especially in children, with an unacceptable level of weight gain, sometimes approaching a pound a day. The side effect is totally unacceptable to teenagers. Molindone rarely, if ever, causes weight gain. One side effect unique to molindone appears to be significant weight loss (Krxc3xcnuholz et al., 1970; Gallant et al., 1973; Freeman and Frederick, 1969; Clark et al., 1970; Escobar et. al., 1985; Gardos and Cole, 1977), although one study found no difference between molindone and other neuroleptics and suggested that higher doses of molindone may cause weight gain (Parent et al, 1986).